1. What exactly is meant by the bioeconomy?

Michael O’Donohue: Since the term ‘bioeconomy’ was first used, its definition has evolved considerably and remains a subject of debate. However, whatever its interpretation, fundamentally, the bioeconomy is an economic system based on the use of renewable resources of biological origin. As such, it also harnesses knowledge and life sciences technologies to produce a wide range of products (e.g. biofuels, molecules for agriculture and the chemical industry, ingredients for food and the pharmaceutical industry…) and services (e.g. waste treatment, plastic recycling…).

2. Is the bioeconomy built on a local or large scale?

Michael O’Donohue: Let us remember that just 12 countries in the world hold more than 80% of the world’s oil reserves. Consequently, the current economy is necessarily globalised and structured around the transport and refining of oil, with tankers, oil pipelines and port refineries.

In the bioeconomy, biomass is everywhere. From an energy perspective, biomass is not very dense, which means it is not easily suited to long-distance transport. The consequence of the differences between oil on the one hand and biomass on the other is that there is a strong territorial dimension to the bioeconomy, which is absent from the oil economy.

The bioeconomy is nevertheless global, as the consumption of most products takes place outside the production sites. Furthermore, certain commodities (such as biofuels) are produced on a very large scale (for example, some plants produce tens of millions of litres of bioethanol per year), which is incompatible with local consumption. Consequently, whilst biomass production is necessarily local, the bioeconomy as a whole is global.

3. Which stakeholders are involved in building this bioeconomy?

Michael O’Donohue: There are many stakeholders in the bioeconomy, and some market relationships are of a new nature. At the start of the bioeconomy, we find farmers and foresters, but also companies involved in the collection and processing of organic waste. In an unprecedented way, the bioeconomy brings together biomass producers with stakeholders across numerous sectors.

Furthermore, the bioeconomy creates links between sectors. When biomass is converted into a product, by-products are likely to be generated, which in turn become raw materials for further processing. These cascading processes foster, for example, links between the agri-food, chemical and energy industries.

4. What are the main challenges to be overcome in developing a sustainable and competitive bioeconomy?

Michael O’Donohue: The first challenge concerns the mobilisation of biomass. For the bioeconomy to be sustainable (in the long-term sense), it is essential that soils remain productive. This involves preserving carbon stocks, as well as mineral resources and water. Without these essential elements, there is neither biomass nor a bioeconomy.

The second challenge concerns the allocation of land between food and non-food uses. Whilst the trade-off may seem straightforward – always favouring food production – the reality is more complex. All human activity, including food production, consumes energy and other products that may be bio-based. Furthermore, there is growing competition between sectors for the use of certain plant resources. Biomass such as cereal straw can thus be used to produce bioenergy, animal bedding or fibres for bio-based materials.

There are other challenges of a technological, economic or even sociological nature. For the bioeconomy to be sustainable, it is essential that it develops with the consent of society and within an economic and regulatory framework that places it on an equal footing with the fossil fuel market.

To find out more, discover the book The Bioeconomy, published on 12 February 2026 as part of the ‘Que sais-je ?’ series. The book explores the history of the relationship between economics and ecology, the political dimension of the bioeconomy, the raw materials on which it relies, the technologies that make it possible, and its regional dynamics. Available now in bookshops.